Conclusion and link to secondary data

The overall view between men and women is that 17 out of the 18 respondents thought that all children should be taught the ‘Standard English’ rather than any other form of language which is considered to be ‘slang’. This could include the language of those who speak Black English Vernacular which is a result of the mix of cultures in our multi-cultural society. The main conclusion to take from this is that the nearly all of teachers think that the Standard English is the best form and should be the only language taught to children. As they will be taught this from a young age, over many generations, the ‘Standard English’ will be the only thing taught to children, even those from different cultures. As there is so much prestige regarding the Standard English, it could be argued that due to my data, there are still a lot of people who want Standard English to have the importance it did before the influence of other cultures. All of my respondents were aware of what is meant by the word ethnicity, and the difference between that and nationality. As all participants chose the sentence ‘whom shall be joining us for dinner tonight?’ rather than ‘who coming tonight’ it could be argued that as all my participants were at least 20 and over, they would have a better understanding of what the correct phrase would be. If this would carried out on teenagers or students in the lower years, they may have thought they used the second question more on a daily basis. This could be because of the people they mix with, as teachers are better educated and have higher intelligence, the phrases and words they use would be a lot better than those of younger students.  

What can you draw about contemporary attitudes to standard English and ethnicity?

The main attitude I can draw through doing my research is that people are constantly changing their opinions on the status of Standard English as it is evolving. The overall view regarding the status of Standard English was that the majority thought that children should be taught what is known as ‘Standard English’ rather than anything else. In the choice of two sentences in question 8, every respondent chose the ‘correct’ Standard English form and no one chose the one which is used as an example of BEV. This could be due to their ethnicity as all of my respondents were British in some way, or it could be simply because that it what they believe to be the correct form. The status of Standard English in our society today is favoured by many. It could be argued that as all my respondents were adults and my sample was only of 18 that it can not be representative of the attitudes on a wider scale as my results show a general overview. An attitude I found from this is that people’s idea of their own ethnicity varies hugely, with some respondents saying they are just white, just British, white British or even with one saying they were welsh which is a part of Britain. This comes to the conclusion that although many people are aware of what ethnicity is, they do not all have the same view on what ethnic group they are. Some respondents did not mention their skin colour whilst others only wrote their skin colour - this is a contrast. In terms of how ethnic groups influence our language, many respondents claimed that social factors is a key reason as to why our English may be ‘getting worse’. Many participants believed that the English language was not getting worse, but is evolving and will continue to do so. Another attitude is that american media has a big influence on our language and that people from other cultures are using our English incorrectly. This shows that there is a negative attitude to the language used by other cultures.

Relate to theories and concepts about language/society

Peter Trudgill - In 1974, Trudgill estimated that in Britain, 3% were Received Pronunciation speakers. RP speakers generally speak Standard English, therefore Trudgill is suggesting that only 3% of people use this when speaking. This suggests that although it is not used on a large scale, many people believe that it is still the correct form even if they do not use it themselves which is ironic. However, through my research I noticed that all my respondents had an opposing view in that they thought Standard English was the correct way to speak, although there was no evidence of them using it themselves. This shows us that the attitude towards Standard English is that it lives up to its prestige as it could be argued that many people still favour it over other forms of language. All my participants acknowleged that the standard English forms is the correct language which should be used, and although in some cases the respondents showed that they used the correct forms of language, there is no evidence of them using it on a daily basis. Some individuals may have some aspects of the Received Pronunciation and Standard English but this is dependant on who they are mixing with. For example, as all my respondents were teachers, their English would be a higher register than most students, but if these questionnaires were based on how they speak during social times, the answers may have been different.

Another theory is by Holmes who suggested that women are sometimes uncertain when speaking. In my questionnaires, some of the women’s answers began with ‘i think..’ whilst the men went straight to the point in saying their answer which was shown in a more certain and confident way. For example, a female respondent wrote ‘ I think that media can influence the English Language’ whilst a male respondent wrote ‘Cultures have always influenced language..’ the male respondent seems more confident in their opinion. Trudgill also found from Labov’s findings that people who are of a lower economic class tend to use less standard forms whilst those who are have a higher economic status use more ‘correct’ standard forms. As my respondents were teachers meaning they are from middle class, this could be the reason why they use more standard forms as they are from a higher economic professions compared to some students. Trudgill found that it was more often that working class men use non standard variation compared to those from middle class or women. John Honey, the sociolinguist believes that the standards of the English Language are falling and that it is constantly evolving. Slang terms are becoming more widely used and are more accepted. Due to this, it is argued that younger people speak in a entirely different way to those who are older. This relates to my research as my respondents wrote that they thought the use of slang is becoming more widely used which is causing the younger generation to pick up bad habits and the use of standard English is becoming less and less. Fasold and Wolfram suggested that the better the socio economic area of people who use BEV, the more similarities it has with white communities.

How do these conclusions compare/relate with any other studies on this field?

After all of the studies on gender, Deborah Tannen argues that all of these studies dismiss the issue of power. Tannen is very critical of many of these studies in saying that power can often be more important than gender in some cases. This relates to my data as many of the respondents who saw themselves as being a white British person (males in particular) could see themselves as holding more power due to using the ‘proper’ English language which causes them to look down on those who use different forms. Regardless of their gender, some respondents may see their language use as better than those from different ethnic groups.

Questionnaire Analysis – Primary data

Males

Male teachers who teach either Mathematics or a Science:

The age range for the respondents who taught either Mathematics or a Science varied. Out of the 5 male teachers, 3 of them were between 31 and 40 (60%) whilst one was between 41 and 50 (20%) and the last respondent was over 51 (20%). On Question 3, all of the respondents answered differently regarding what ethnic group they believed they were. Two of the respondents wrote that they were ‘White British’, whilst one only wrote ‘British’ with another saying they were ‘white’ and the last said they were Welsh. The respondent who only mentioned that they were ‘British’ did not mention their skin colour which could suggest that either they did not want to state their skin colour because they may feel as though people may make a judgement and that they shouldn’t be defined by the colour of their skin, or because many may assume that every ‘British’ person is white, therefore their skin colour is not relevant. One individual did not mention their skin colour or that they were British, and said that they were ‘Welsh’ even though wales is a part of Britain. One respondent referred to themselves as only ‘white’ with no mention of whether or not they are British, which could suggest they assume that if they say they are white, everyone will automatically think they are British because of the stereotypes of a typical ‘British white male’.

In Question 4, the answers varied as to what their perception of ethnicity is. None of the respondents thought it was to do with skin colour, even though it would have been expected due to the results of the previous question. The overall view was that ethnicity is the shared culture and that it is people with different origins. In Question 5, the general answer given was that nationality is the country that you were born in or belong to, and that your ethnicity is genetic and cultural. One participant wrote that ‘you can have a nationality of French but an ethnicity of caucasian.’ This shows that this respondent realises the differences between ethnicity and nationality as an example as used, whereas the other answers were more basic and simply said that ethnicity related to culture whilst nationality was where you are from.

In Question 6, the views differed hugely as none of the respondents wrote the same. One thought that ethnicity only slightly influences the way someone speaks, with a similar view of another respondent who thought that it slightly does but it is more the individual’s regional dialect. However, a different respondent went on to say that ethnicity does change the way we speak as it has an influence on the language we learn. In Question 7, all five of the teachers ticked the same box, meaning they all shared the same view on what sentence they believed to be better in their opinion (Whom shall be joining us for dinner tonight?). Therefore, all the teachers share the same view on Standard English as they chose the Received Pronounciation form. Similarly, on Question 8, all male Science and Maths teachers ticked the same box again, showing they are similar in their views. It could be argued that as the participants were all of similar age groups and were teachers, they are more educated compared to students who probably would have differed in opinion.

In Question 9, one respondent thought that there was more slang, whilst another went on to explain that ‘bad’ forms of English are beginning to be more accepted as parents are not correcting their children. However, another respondent disagreed with the rest and said that it is not getting worse, it is simply evolving and that the majority of people supposedly speak ‘proper English’. In Question 10, all but one of the respondents (20%) thought that English is not being influenced by other cultures, they are only being lazy as the majority of people will speak ‘proper english’ in the workplace. Lastly, in the final question, all respondents ticked the box that said ‘yes’ meaning they thought children should not be taught any other form of Language besides the Standard English. It could be argued that this is not possible as we have become a multi-cultural society, meaning it is bound to happen, regardless of what anyone does to try and prevent it. Children should be taught other forms of language so they are able to understand what is right and wrong.

Sociology male teachers

Both of the Sociology teachers differed in age, with one being between 20 and 30 and the other between 31 and 40. In Question 3, one respondent (the one who was younger) wrote that they were just ‘British’ whilst the other one wrote ‘White British’. Again, the difference in opinion shows that ethnicity is difficult to define. In question 4, their answers were similar which could have been due to the subject they teach as they both wrote that ethnicity is the individual’s culture, norms and values with one adding that it is their national identity. In Question 5, one respondent thought that nationality was just a legal definition. It is then added that he could consider himself as irish because of his heritage (relating this back to culture) but in terms of nationality, he is British as he was born in this country. The other respondent states that nationality relates to the country you ‘belong’ to. In Question 6, one answered that through secondary socialisation (education) is when you are influenced by other cultures which is generally your peers or teachers. This suggests that if someone went to an all white British school, they would never mix with other ethnicities meaning they might speak differently compared to those who occasionally mix. On question 7 and 8, both of these teachers chose the same box as to what they believed to be better. As they teach the same subject, this could be the reason for the similarities between their answers. In Question 9, the view is relatively similar. One respondent does not think the English Language is getting worse at all, but believes it it simply evolving. Similarly, the other respondent thinks that Language remains the same and it is only gradually changing and that it is how people use the language which is causing it to be worse. Both thought that the English Language is being influenced by other cultures due to us living in a global community. One respondent then develops on to say that some cultures are using English incorrectly which could influence how we speak and alter the Standard English Language. In the final question, both respondents ticked yes in that they thought children should only be taught standard English.

Other subject male teachers

The final set of male respondents taught different subjects - a Media teacher, a PE teacher and a Business teacher. All three of these wrote that they were ‘white British’ showing that they consider the word ethnicity to refer to your skin colour. Their answer is very clear and shows that they understand what the word ethnicity means although it is difficult to define. In Question 4 regarding ethnicity, all three mentioned it was to do with culture. However, one of the respondents mentioned it was ‘a description of skin colour’ which could be the reason why he mentioned his colour of skin when writing his ethnicity. All three shared the same view on what the difference between ethnicity and nationality is, with all three saying that ethnicity is the cultural norms whilst nationality is where you were born. In question 6, the answers all vary. One respondent thought that ethnicity influences how you speak in the same way that region can affect your dialect, whilst another mentioned about the difference in language meanings and the last one mentioning the influence of peers. Again, in a similar way that the rest of the male teachers answered, their answer to Question 7 and 8 were exactly the same. In Question 9, all of the respondents thought that our language is developing and constantly evolving due to new words and meanings. In Question 10, all three answered yes and thought that it was a good thing that other cultures are influencing the English Language. Only 10% of all male respondents thought that children should only be taught Standard English rather than other slang forms which was a completely different answer compared to the rest of the answers I received.

Questionnaire analysis – Primary data

Females

Humanities teachers

One of the Humanities teachers was in the age range of between 41 and 50, whilst the other is between 31 and 40. In Question 3, one of the respondents wrote they were only ‘white’ and did not mention anything about being British, whilst the other respondent did not answer the question and left it blank. This could suggest that this respondent did not want to mention their skin colour or whether or not they were British. In Question 4, both of the respondents mentioned that ethnicity was a person’s shared culture and traditions, meaning they had a similar view. In Question 5, one respondent stated that nationality was the country you were born, whilst the other said ‘ethnicity goes beyond national boundaries’. One respondent on Question 6 answered that it was shared language which influences the way someone speaks, whereas the other may not have understood the question, as they only answered ‘sometimes’ and did not mention how. In Question 7, one respondent did not answer what sentence they believed to be better, but added ‘It depends on definition of better’ which shows this respondent can’t answer the question as everyone has different view of what ‘better’ means. In Question 10, both of the respondents thought that media influences the English Language rather than ethnicity. In the final question, both respondents thought that children should only be taught the ‘Standard’ English whilst one added that there is nothing wrong in knowing both and the difference between both.

Science and Social Science teachers

Half of the female teachers in these subjects referred to themselves as being just ‘British, whilst the other half mentioned they were ‘White British’. All four of these respondents defined ethnicity as being an individuals culture, and in question 5, they all noticed the main difference between ethnicity and nationality was that nationality refers to the country that you were born in. Two of the respondents (50%) were between 31 and 40, whilst the other two were between 20 and 30. Three out of the four respondents wrote that environmental and social factors can influence the way someone speaks as it is dependant on who you mix with. If your group of friends are all from the same ethnic group and so is their family, it is less likely that they will have a mix of language compared to those who are constantly mixing with other ethnic groups. The other respondent wrote about how someone’s religion may influence how they speak, as she wrote that if you are from a religious background, you may not swear. In a similar way to the results of the other females and all the men, these four respondent chose the same form of what they believed to be correct in both Question 7 and 8. In Question 9, two of the respondents thought that the English Language was getting worse and this was because of the use of slang in text messaging. However, the other respondents had a similar view to the males in that she thought the language was only evolving with the addition of new words. In the final question, all four of the respondents thought that children should only use Standard English, with two of them adding that children need to be aware of what is incorrect and that individuals will change the way they speak depending on who they are speaking to.

Other teachers

There was quite a big age range between these two respondents as one was between 31 and 40 and the over was 51+. One respondent answered to Question 3 that they were ‘white European’ rather than any mention of being British. However, the other respondents mentioned they were white. The views were similar on Question 4 when talking about the difference between ethnicity and nationality, as they both stated that nationality was the country you were born in whereas ethnicity is more about race. In Question 6, one respondent said that cultural reference such as the vocabulary in a country can affect the individuals’ choice of words. Similarly, in Question 7 and 8, they both answered as what they thought to be the correct form of English which shows they dislike the use of other forms of English. Both respondents wrote on Question 9 that they thought the English Language was getting worse because of the introduction of new technology and because of text speak.

Overall of females

62% of female respondents were between the ages of 31 and 40, with only 25% being between 20 and 30, and the final 13% being either 51 or over.

1/8 respondents mentioned they were white European, 2/8 wrote they were just ‘British’, 3/8 said they were white British, 1/8 saying they were just white, and the final respondent did not answer the Question on ethnicity.

The overall view from 7 of out the 8 female respondents was that nationality was the place you were born, whilst ethnicity refers to your culture.

The responses varied on Question 6 with some respondents mentioning environmental reasons, social reasons and shared language, whilst other referred to their class and nationality. One respondent did not understand the question and only wrote ‘sometimes’ and did not include how.

Every single female ticked the same box for Question 7 and 8, meaning they all share the same views on what they believe to be the correct standard form.

5 out of 8 of the female respondents agreed with the idea of the English language getting worse, with references to the effect of social media and text language. The other 3 respondents did not write a clear answer, and only wrote their opinion of the idea that people are becoming more lazy, and that the language is not getting worse, it is evolving.

In Question 10, the overall is that the English language is being influenced by other cultures as many of our words we use are from other languages. 3 respondents mentioned the influence of American films on our language, with some respondents simply writing ‘yes’ with no explanation.

All 8 of my female respondents agreed that only the original standard English should be taught to children rather than other forms of language.

Holby City

Clip: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6lv5Aep0WFg

To what extent does the represented language of medical drama reflect real language used in this kind of workplace, or language in the workplace more generally?

This clip is based around a operation taking place on a patient who had been rushed into hospital. The language used in the hospital by the surgeon’s does not fully represent the jargon stereotypically associated with hospitals. There is some evidence in this clip which supports LINC’s theory in 1898 - 1992, but there are also some aspects which are disproven.

The conversation begins with one surgeon confronting another about their mother’s ‘love life’ which is an example of social talk rather than them discussing the operation they are carrying out. During the middle of the clip, there is a slight reference to the procedure after one surgeon said ‘’remember what we are here for’’, and the conversation was based around the patient. The conversation is quite general and friendly whilst discussing their social lives but becomes more complex when discussing the operation they are carrying out. This supports the idea that equality in the dialogue between participants tends to produce less predictable content and turn taking as well as more interruptions as the content discussed at the start of the clip was mainly about their social lives which would have been unexpected for a surgeon to be discussing that, particularly as it was during a difficult procedure. Whilst discussing the procedure, there is rare interruption but when talking about their social lives, some surgeons cut other people off.

At one point in the middle of the clip, the surgeon’s start talking about what they are doing and using jargon such as ‘ there is a problem with the neurotic valve’, ‘powder please’, and ‘we may need to replace the ascending aorta’. This supports the idea that in hospitals the language used is technical and that this technical vocabulary binds its users together. It can be quite difficult to understand what the surgeons are saying as they are using more technical terms which would regularly be used in hospitals making It  hard for those who are not part of that specific discourse community. I think that the language used in hospitals or other related workplaces is often quite general and the conversations they have are usually about the surgery itself or about their social lives. In some cases the conversations are relaxed whilst in others it can be more stressful.

Language & Occupation theories 

Eakins&Eakins

In 1976, Eakins and Eakins studied 7 university meetings. The results were that men spoke for longer during these meetings, with men's turns ranging from 10.66 to 17.07 seconds and the women's from only 3 to 10. This suggests that men are more dominant in some occupations as they are the ones who spoke for longer.                                                                           Edelsky 

In 1981, Edelsky conducted research on men and women by observing face to face conversations on office floors in a university in America. In a series of meetings, results showed that men were the more dominant speakers as they were the ones who took longer turns and made more jokes, had more arguments and done the most directly. However, during the 'free for all', women and men talked equally, and women joked, argued, directed and solicited responses more than men. 

Herbert & Straight

1989 - Herbert and Straight showed that compliments were more likely to flow from those of a higher rank compared to those of a lower rank. 

                                                                       Herring

In 1992, an email discussion took place with the participation of 30 men and 5 women. It took place on a linguistics distribution list. Only five women took part even though women make up nearly half the members of the linguistic society in America. On average, the emails men sent were twice as long as those of women's. In an email, men adopted an assertive tone such as 'it is obvious that...' which shows their dominance.  On the other hand, women would use a more personal tone. 

                                                                     Holmes 

From 1998, various studies from Holmes were conducted on managers. These studies showed that managers who were female were more likely to negotiate consensus compared to male managers who are less likely as they take time to ensure everyone genuinely agrees with what has been decided.

 Holmes, Holmes and Marra 2005, 2002

This research shows that women use the same amount of humour as men and for the same reasons which is to control discourse and to contest superiors. However, women are more likely to encourage supportive and collaborative humour compared to men. 

Hornyak 

(1994) This research has shown that the highest ranking person in the room (either men or women) always initiates from work talk to personal talk. 

Tracy and Eisenberg 

 In a role play where the individual had to deliver criticism to a co - worker regarding errors in a business letter, men showed more concerns for the feelings of the person they were criticizing. This was only when they were in the subordinate role, whereas women showed more concern when in a superior role. 

Attitudes to Standard English

PRESCRIPTIVISTS

From a prescriptivist view, all languages change, and nothing can be done to stop that from happening - but it should not be accepted. Prescriptivist's ideas are idealistic but many argue they are also very unrealistic and unattainable. This is because languages will always change and it is extremely hard to pin down a set of rules which can account for those changes. Prescriptivism argues that language should have rules which should be adhered to. Around the 18th century, a variety of English had evolved into ‘standard’ and the other forms were seen as not as good. A fault of prescriptivism is that it does not take into account that language is a naturally changing phenomenon and due to all the variation regarding language, there is nothing you can do to stop it other than accept it.

DESCRIPTIVISTS

On the other hand, descriptivists views contrast with the prescriptive views, as their approach to language is to understand why and how it works rather than trying to enforce rules and regulations. On the surface, many may argue that descriptivism is easier to agree with as there is no desire to regulate language use. Descriptivism is use as before we can attribute rules, we should investigate and describe its aspects first. However, similarly to prescriptivism, it has its faults. For example -  (Meyer 2010)states that “whether linguists like it or not, all language is subjected to linguistic norms”. Although descriptivism is objective, individuals still have their own subjective opinions about what makes a good or a bad language.

Questionnaire

I am an A-Level English language student at Shenfield High School and I need to investigate various opinions on the English Language. All results will be strictly confidential and your privacy will be maintained - there will be no record of your name or who you are.

1. What age range are you in? ( Tick the box which applies)

20 - 30	31 - 40
41 - 50	51+

    2. What subject(s) do you specialize in?

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    3.   What Ethnic group do you consider yourself to be?

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    4.  When you think of the word ‘ethnicity’ - what comes to mind? What Ethnic group do you consider yourself to be?

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5.  What do you think is the difference between Ethnicity and Nationality?

---

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   6. How do you think Ethnicity influences the way someone speaks?

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 7. Below is two example of a similar sentence, but in different ways of saying it. Circle the sentence which you consider to be ‘better’ in your own opinion.

Whom shall be joining us for dinner tonight?

Who coming for dinner tonight?

8. Out of the following, which sentence do you think you are more likely to say on a regular basis? (Tick inside the box)

You can’t rely on nobody.

You can’t rely on anybody.

9. In your opinion, do you think the English Language is slowly getting worse? Please explain your answer.

---

---

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 10. Do you think the English Language is being influenced by other cultures? If so, how?

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---

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11. Do you think children should be taught Standard English rather than other ‘slang’ forms of language? (Tick the box which applies)

YES

NO

Theories on ethnicity - cover work

Theories of origin:

American Black English (also known as BVE - Black English vernacular) is language spoken by African Americans (Generally who live in America) and Caribbean/African individuals who live in Britain. Among linguists, the history of African American vernacular is hugely controversial. There are four key theories regarding the origins and development of AAVE. In order, the theories are:

the Anglicist Hypothesis

the Creolist Hypothesis

the Neo-Anglicist Hypothesis

the Substrate Hypothesis

The anglicist hypothesis:

The first theory was set forth in the mid 20th century by Hans Kurath and Raveb Mcdavid. Until the 1960’s, Kurath and Mcdavid’s theory was the one that was ruling.

According to this theory, the development of AAVE followed the same way as the language of other immigrants would. This theory seems to suggest that when slaves were brought from Africa to the US, the languages they spoke had varied massively. Therefore, as they were exposed to the English language, they were practically forced to learn it. When slaves began to have children, their native languages were preserved less and less, meaning they spoke English more and more. This is also notice in society today, as many children of immigrants do not speak their own native language as they are not exposed to it. Due to this, it is argued that through generations of the slaves’ native languages, it has eventually died out. Instead, this was replaced by the regional and social dialects which surround them. Proponents of the Anglicist Hypothesis believe that this suggests that Black English is just acquired English that happened to develop with slightly different features over many years.

Linguists seek to support this hypothesis by comparing traits of the British English of the time with those that are unique to AAVE.

The creolist hypothesis:

This theory suggests that AAVE was developed from a creole language that resulted from the early contact between Africans and Europeans.  An example of a creole is Krio, which is spoken today in Sierra Leon and elsewhere in Africa.

CREOLE = A language that develops due to contact between two groups who do not know each other's language.

A creole language is developed in two steps.

Firstly, A pidgin is created which is a pseudo-language, usually developed for the purpose of allowing groups with different languages to trade, that includes a combination of both languages.  They are usually narrow, specialized, and not really grammatical but it is possible for a pidgin to continue to develop into a functional language.  This usually happens with the next generation, who grow up hearing the pidgin and learn it from an early age.  A creole is a fully-formed language that does follow grammar rules. Therefore, many people think that a creole results from contact between the Europeans and Africans. They say it was similar to English based creoles which are developed in the African Disapora. Proponents of the creolist hypothesis suggest that creole is widespread throughout the southern US.

Linguist William Stewart maintained that even slaves who were born in the New World spoke a creole language that differed significantly from the varieties of British English spoken by the white colonists.

However, the creole hypothesis suggests that a process of decreolization occurred where many of the features of creole were replaced with other dialects which occurs as a result of being surrounded by them.

This theory has been largely disproven - This hypothesis was supported by not only linguistic but also historical evidence.  However, it fell out of favor with the discovery of further historical data -- in the form of the written records of ex-slaves.  These extensive narrations did not differ nearly as much from the postcolonial dialect as would be expected if AAVE really developed from a creole.  

Furthermore, linguist Salikoko Mufwene has suggested that historically, the distribution of slaves in the Southern United States was not in fact likely to facilitate development of a creole, as most slaves had contact with only a few others.  (Mufwene 2003).  

The neo - anglicist hypothesis:

In a similar way to the anglicist hypothesis, the Neo-Anglicist Hypothesis maintains that the earlier African-American Vernacular originated based on the British dialects that were brought to the U.S. In contrast, the Neo-Anglicists do not maintain that modern features of AAVE can be traced to British dialects

because instead, they believe that the African-American Vernacular diverged from the other dialects and became more diverse.

However, the main  implication of this theory is that the most distinct features of AAVE are relatively recent innovations that were the work of African-Americans themselves and not as a  result of any outside influence.

The substrate hypothesis:

This theory suggests that while earlier AAVE dialects may have incorporated many features of other regional dialects due to contact with them, it has always differentiated itself in virtue of a strong substrate effect. They believe that AAVE has always differentiated itself via the substrate effect, due to possible early contact with creole speakers, even if they themselves never developed a full-fledged creole.

In linguistics, a substrate effect occurs when a language is influenced continually by its exposure to or contact with another language, even if this language no longer transfers features to the other language or is no longer in contact with it.  Even after the contact has ceased, it can still have an effect on the way the first language develops later on.

Contemporary issues and development

The spread of Black English

When slavery ended, more and more African Americans spread north and all over the country which meant AAVE was spread as well. After a while, it took on a ethnic significance which solidified it and also helped in establishing the base features for language. This then lead to a form of AAVE which is recognised regardless of geographical differences.  Meanwhile, social occurrences such as the segregation of American society reinforced this culture of separation even more strongly, and the dialect continued to diverge and become unique, growing with the African-American sense of identity.

Ebonics

Recently, the societal status of African-American Vernacular English has been extremely controversial, due mostly to the widespread negative perceptions regarding it. This came to a public head with the Oakland Ebonics Controversy in 1996.

This was a result of the Oakland County school board passing a resolution that declared Ebonics to be a language.  This had the result of mandating instruction in the AAVE dialect for students whose primary dialect was AAVE.  Despite support from linguists and teachers of English to students of other languages, the popular reaction was largely negative.  People objected to what they saw as declaring an inferior dialect to be a language, or to teaching English they saw as "wrong" in public schools. Currently, work is being done to help speakers of other dialects learn standard English through use of that dialect, notably by famed sociolinguist William Labov.  With education, resistance to the idea should be dispelled.   

Accent and Dialect

 An ‘accent’ is a distinctive way of pronouncing language. They are usually associated with a particular country or area. Dialect however, refers to a form of language which different to a specific group or region.

The Uk is seen as the most dialect obsessed nation in the world. There are a significant amount of accents shapes by many people throughout history, with only few English-speaking nations with as many varieties of language in such a small space.

Cockney

Cockney originated from the east end of london and has now become one of the most popular accents in London. Due to this,cockney shares many traits with other dialects in that region. An example of someone who speaks cockney is the actor Ray Winstone, as well as the heavy metal rocker Steve Harri.

The features of Cockney Language:

-In words such as ‘cat’ and ‘trap’, people with a cockney accent raise the vowels. This means these words begin to sound like ‘trep’ and ‘cet’.

-In cockney, the ‘h’ is not pronounced. For example,with the word ‘house’ you wouldn’t pronounce the h at all, therefore it would simply be ‘ouse’.

-Th-fronting, another feature of cockney language is that certain words are pronounced with a more forward consonant. For example, thing becomes “fing,” this becomes “dis,” and mother becomes “muhvah.”

-Another key feature is the use of rhyme to communicate meanings. For example, Would you Adam and Eve it?’ - this uses rhyme to pragmatically say ‘can you believe it?’. Another example is  ‘We had a Bull and Cow last night.’ - this basically means ‘we had a row last night’.The final example is ‘does anyone want a pigs ear’ this is asking if anyone would like a beer. The use of rhyme makes it easier to read and creates a nice flow

Welsh English

Welsh english refers to the accents and dialects in wales. An example of someone who speaks welsh is the singer Tom Jones, as well as the actor Rhys Ifans. Many Americans argue that welsh is actually a foreign language. Until the start of the eighteenth century the vast majority of the population of Wales spoke Welsh, although many would have had regular contact with English

The features of Welsh English:

-One feature of welsh english is that the syllables are evenly stressed. The prosody of the accent is generally very musical.

-Also, welsh english is normally non-rhotic.

-In welsh, the letter ‘r’ if often trilled or tapped.

Estuary english

Estuary english, also known as south east english was derived from London english. This accent can be heard round South East England, East Anglia, and even starting to come in to the midlands and the north. South east is known to be one of the most common within essex, and is widely used. An example of people who have this accent are the comedians Russell Brand and Ricky Gervais, as well as the chef Gordon Ramsay. Estuary English shares many features with cockney.

Features of Estuary english

-Firstly, many people criticise estuary english for being ‘too informal at times’, ‘ over exaggerating’ and ‘fake’. This is because the stereotypes of this type of english is that the words are dragged out, making them longer - hence it being criticised for being too exaggerated.

-Additionally, an example of a stereotypical word used by people with a south east accent would be ‘bait’. This word means that something is obvious. An example of this in a sentence would be ‘’it's so bait you hate me’’.

-Although it is similar to cockney, estuary speakers do not front th words or raise the vowel in trap.

-Use of intrusive: pronouncing /r/ where etymologically no /r/ is present to prevent consecutive vowel sounds. For instance, drawing is pronounced /ˈdrɔːrɪŋ/.